NCERT Solutions for Class 8 History Chapter 3 - Ruling the Countryside

The Diwani refers to the right to collect revenue from land and administer civil justice in a territory. In 1765, the Mughal Emperor appointed the East India Company as the Diwan of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. This gave the Company the right to collect revenue from these territories while the nominal administrative authority remained with the Nawab of Bengal. The Diwani rights were a crucial step in establishing British political and economic control over India, as it provided the Company with vast financial resources to strengthen its military and administrative apparatus.

The Permanent Settlement was introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793. Under this system:

• The rajahs and taluqdars were recognized as zamindars
• They were required to pay a fixed amount of revenue to the Company
• They were free to collect whatever revenue they could from the peasants
• If they failed to pay the fixed revenue, their estates could be confiscated

The Permanent Settlement was designed to create a class of loyal landlords who would support British rule and ensure a steady flow of revenue. However, it had several negative consequences:

• Zamindars had no incentive to invest in land improvement
• Peasants suffered as zamindars extracted maximum revenue
• Many zamindars defaulted on payments and lost their estates
• The fixed revenue demand did not consider variations in harvest conditions

The Ryotwari system was introduced in parts of Madras and Bombay Presidencies where the British colonial government dealt directly with the cultivators (ryots). Key features of the system were:

• Revenue was directly settled with the cultivator rather than through intermediaries
• Land surveys were conducted to fix the revenue demand
• The revenue demand was fixed for a period of 30 years
• There was no intermediary between the Company and the ryots

While the system aimed to create a class of peasant proprietors who would invest in land improvement, in practice:

• Revenue demands were often too high and unrealistic
• Ryots faced difficulties in paying the fixed amount regardless of harvest
• Many ryots lost their land to moneylenders due to indebtedness
• The system created peasant discontent and occasional resistance

Under the Mahalwari system introduced by Holt Mackenzie in 1822 and later modified by William Bentinck in 1833, a mahal referred to a village or a group of villages. The system was implemented in the North-Western Provinces, parts of the Central Provinces, and the Punjab. Its key features were:

• The village community or mahal was collectively responsible for paying revenue
• Land was periodically surveyed and revenue demand revised
• The village body was responsible for distribution of revenue among individuals
• The system tried to preserve traditional village rights and customs
• The settlement was made with the entire village community rather than individuals

This system attempted to respect the traditional village structure while ensuring regular revenue collection for the British administration.

The British revenue systems had profound and far-reaching effects on Indian agriculture:

• Commercialization of Agriculture: Farmers were pressured to grow cash crops like indigo, cotton, and opium for export markets rather than food crops.
• Indebtedness: High revenue demands forced peasants to borrow from moneylenders, leading to cycles of debt and eventual land alienation.
• Decline in Food Production: Shift to cash crops reduced food grain production, leading to food shortages and famines.
• Rural Social Structure: Traditional relationships between cultivators and zamindars were disrupted, creating new social tensions.
• Lack of Investment: Neither zamindars nor peasants had resources or incentives for agricultural improvement.
• Fragmentation of Land: Inheritance practices and debt led to subdivision and fragmentation of agricultural landholdings.
• Peasant Distress: Agricultural productivity declined and peasants faced growing economic hardship.

The British encouraged the cultivation of particular crops for several economic, industrial, and strategic reasons:

• Indigo: Required for dyeing textiles, which was important for the British textile industry.
• Cotton: Needed as raw material for British cotton mills during the Industrial Revolution.
• Opium: Produced to trade with China to address the trade imbalance caused by British imports of tea and silk.
• Jute: Required for various industrial purposes and as a substitute for hemp in manufacturing.
• Tea: Cultivated in Assam to reduce dependence on Chinese tea imports.
• Coffee and spices: Grown for export to European markets to fulfill demand and generate profit.

This reorientation of agriculture toward commercial crops often ignored local food needs and led to food insecurity and economic vulnerability for peasants.

The Blue Rebellion (1859-1860) was an uprising by indigo peasants in Bengal against the oppressive indigo plantation system. It was called the "Blue Rebellion" because of the distinctive blue color of indigo dye. The rebellion occurred because:

• Indigo planters forced peasants to grow indigo on the most fertile parts of their land
• The indigo plant system (called the "ryoti system") was highly exploitative
• Planters provided loans with high interest rates that peasants could never repay
• Peasants received very low prices for their indigo produce
• They were forced to grow indigo instead of food crops needed for survival

The rebellion saw peasants refusing to grow indigo, attacking indigo factories, and boycotting the planters. The uprising spread rapidly across Bengal and forced the British government to appoint the Indigo Commission to investigate the complaints. The Commission's report acknowledged the injustices of the system and led to the gradual abolition of the indigo plantation system. By the late 19th century, the forced cultivation of indigo had effectively ended, though cultivation continued on more voluntary terms.