Social Stratification Among Tribals in India

The Nature of Tribal Societies

In social anthropology, tribal societies have historically been romanticized as "primitive communes" where property is common and social status is uniform. However, this view is largely a generalization. While many tribes, such as the Toda or the Birhor, exhibit features of relative egalitarianism compared to caste-ridden Hindu society, they are seldom devoid of hierarchy. Social stratification among tribals in India operates on multiple levels: intra-tribal (within the same tribe), inter-tribal (between different tribes), and extra-tribal (between tribes and the outside world).

Internal Stratification: Clan and Lineage

The most prominent form of hierarchy within a tribe is based on clan (Gotra or Kil) organization. Although a tribe may function as a single unit for defense and territory, it is often divided into several clans. These clans are frequently ranked according to their supposed origin or mythological precedence.

For instance, among the Bhils, social status is often determined by the clan one belongs to. Certain clans claim direct descent from the tribes legendary founders or deities, granting them a higher status. These "superior" clans often hold the hereditary right to perform religious rituals or occupy the position of the tribal headman (Mukhia or Pardhan). Conversely, clans that arrived later or are associated with menial tasks may occupy a lower rung in the social ladder.

Among the Gonds, a similar structure exists. The Gond society is divided into ruling clans (Raj Gonds) and subordinate clans. The Raj Gonds historically held sway over land and political power, effectively forming a local aristocracy, while other clans served as cultivators or artisans within the tribal ecosystem.

Occupational Stratification

While the Hindu caste system is based on the Varna division, tribal societies often differentiate groups based on functional roles. Over time, these functional roles can solidify into hereditary status groups, mirroring caste-like structures.

In several central Indian tribes, there is a distinct separation between the "clean" or "patrilocal" groups and the "unclean" or service groups. For example, in the Munda and Santal societies, there existed groups known as the Mahali or Das, who served as musicians or weavers. Although they are part of the broader tribal identity, they often hold a lower social status compared to the dominant agricultural clans. They may face restrictions regarding inter-dining or marriage, indicating a form of social stratification that mirrors the concept of "untouchability" in milder forms.

Furthermore, the accretion of wealth creates a class of tribal elites. In the northeast, among the Nagas, the concept of aristocracy was historically linked to the possession of Mithan (Bison) and land. Those with larger herds and granaries commanded greater respect and influence, creating a divide between the rich and the common cultivators within the same village.

Gender Stratification

Gender roles also contribute significantly to social stratification. While many tribes, particularly in the Northeast (like the Khasis and Garos), are matrilineal ( tracing descent through the female line), they are not necessarily matriarchal (ruled by women). In patrilocal tribes, women often have restricted rights regarding property ownership and decision-making. However, compared to mainstream Hindu society, tribal women generally enjoy higher visibility in the economic sphere, contributing actively to agriculture and household economics. Despite this, patriarchal norms are increasingly influencing tribal societies, leading to a decline in women's social autonomy and creating a sharper gender divide.

Influence of the Caste System and Sanskritization

The interaction between tribals and the surrounding Hindu society has perhaps been the most potent force in reshaping social stratification. This process, known as Sanskritization, involves tribes adopting the customs, rituals, and hierarchy of higher castes to elevate their own social standing.

Many tribes claim a status equivalent to that of the Kshatriyas (the warrior class). The Gonds, for instance, often refer to themselves as Rajputs and prohibit beef consumption to align with upper-caste Hindu norms. This adoption creates a new layer of hierarchy within the tribe: those who successfully adopt high-caste norms distinguish themselves from those who cling to "traditional" or "lower" ways.

Simultaneously, tribes are often placed into the caste hierarchy by their neighbors. The "Hinduised" sections of a tribe may be accorded a higher caste status (such as Sadan or Oraon), while the forest-dwelling, animistic sections are treated as "pure" tribes but often socially isolated or looked down upon. This "Caste-Tribal Continuum" results in a complex social fabric where a single tribal group may be stratified into caste-like sub-groups.

Inter-Tribal Stratification

Hierarchies also exist between different tribal groups residing in the same geographical area. Dominant tribes often exercise control over smaller or weaker tribes.

For example, in the Chotanagpur plateau, the Mundas and Oraons historically held political dominance in certain regions, often subjugating the Birhors, a nomadic hunting-gathering tribe. The Birhors were viewed as a "lower" tribe due to their nomadic lifestyle and distinct economic practices. Similarly, the Santals, due to their larger population and stronger political organization, hold a social prestige that smaller, fragmented tribes in the same region do not enjoy.

Modern Economic and Political Stratification

In contemporary India, modernization and democratic politics have introduced new forms of stratification. The creation of the "Scheduled Tribes" category for affirmative action has created a political elite within tribal communities.

• The Elite Class: A small percentage of tribals have access to higher education, government jobs, and political office. This class effectively bridges the gap between the tribal world and the mainstream elite, often adopting urban lifestyles.
• This group consists of small-scale farmers, teachers, and those with some access to market economies but limited political power.
• The Marginalized: The vast majority of tribals remain landless laborers, subsistence farmers, or forest dwellers who are increasingly alienated from their traditional resources due to industrialization and mining.

This economic divide is sharper than the traditional clan-based hierarchies. A wealthy tribal contractor from a "lower" clan may command more social power today than a poor member of a "royal" clan. Furthermore, loss of land due to development projects has severely impacted the economic status of tribals, creating a class of "development refugees" who are at the bottom of the socio-economic ladder.

Conclusion

The social stratification of tribals in India is a dynamic and multifaceted phenomenon. It is not merely a reflection of the caste system imposed from the outside, nor is it a static hierarchy of ancient traditions. It is a fluid system that balances clan lineage, occupational roles, gender relations, and modern economic status.

From the ranking of clans within the Gond and Bhil communities to the Sanskritization of ritual practices, and the emergence of a modern tribal elite, stratification continues to evolve. Understanding these nuanced layers is essential for sociologists and policymakers to address the true nature of inequality in India. It challenges the monolithic view of the "Adivasi" and highlights that even within societies traditionally viewed as egalitarian, the human tendencies towards organization, ranking, and hierarchy persist.